ARCHITECTURE in Islamic Golden Age

The East has always been rich in architectural monuments and some of the greatest monuments built during ancient times were found in the East. The Pyramids of Egypf the Great Wall of China and the Hanging Garden of Babylon included in the Seven Wonders of theWorld were located in the East. The Pyramids of Egypt still remind people of the greatness of their builders, whose engineering skill enabled them to raise such massive pieces of stones to such great heights about 5,000 years ago when mechanical and engineering faculties were not as developed as today.

The Arabs who inherited the civilization and culture of the Greeks and Romans also brought about a great development in the architectural sphere. The mosque is the typical and principal Arab building, varying to some extent in form with different localities, but always retaining its main features. Mosques, the most original creation of Muslim genius which are found everywhere offer the best means of studying the architectural development of a country. In middle eastern countries religious and aristocratic buildings, such as mosques, shrines, tombs, palaces and castles predominate. The countries which abound in the finest architectural monuments of the Arabs, Persians and Mughals are Spain, Egypt, Iraq, Persia and the Indo-Pak Sub-continent.

Abbasid
Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid was a city of palaces made not of stucco and mortar, but of marble. The buildings are not different in structure or style from those in Damascus and show Persian influence. The palaces were lavishly gilded and decorated. The imperial palaces of Khuld had a golden gate and a hall surmounted by a green dome 80 cubits high, which was the crown of Baghdad. The palace named Dar-us-Shajar had a tree made of gold with birds perched on its branches made also of gold and studded with gems. Another palace, the Hall of Paradise (Aiwan-al-Firdaus) with its magnificent chandeliers, its inlaid jewels on the walls, its paintings and ornamentations was a fairy sight.

Egypt
Egypt did not lag behind in erecting architectural monuments during mediaeval times and the mosque of Ibn Tululi provides the most splendid sight in Cairo. Other magnificent palaces of the Fatimids and the Ayyubids are in ruins.

Indo-Pakistan
The Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent possesses some of the finest architectural monuments in the East.

The Mughal period is particularly noted for its fine architecture and Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid of Delhi, the Red Fort and the marble palaces of agra and Delhi is known as one of the greatest builders in history. Jehangir was fond of paintings while Shah Jahan was fond of buildings-hence what Jahangir achieved on paper, Shah Jahan achieved in brick and mortar. The Taj Mahal, built of white marble, employing 20 thousand men for 22 years and costing 30 crores of rupees is undoubtedly the finest building in the world. It is 'Love or Lyric in Marble', and is unique in its evasive loveliness, which is so difficult to define in architectural terms but most expressive of the builder's intentions. Bernier says, "This monument deserves much more to be remembered among the wonders of the world than the Pyramids of Egypt". "It is an astonishing work", says Tavernier, Fergusson observes, "It is a combination of so many beauties, and the perfect manner in which one is subordinate to the other makes up a whole which the world cannot match". Harvel calls it, "A living thing with all the aesthetic attributes of perfect womanhood, more subtle, romantic and tender in its beauty than any other building of its kind' '

The Pearl Mosque of the Delhi Fort is a sanctuary in which 'mysterious soul throbs between bliss and ecstacy'. Its charm lies in its simplicity and its chief attraction is the purity of its marble. It is a pearl without a flaw. "If fine ornamentation, floral designs artistic writings and intricate trellis work contribute to the charm of the Taj, the very absence of these add to the beauty of the Pearl Mosque”.

The Red Fort, started in 1639 and completed after 9 years, contains a number of beautiful marble courts and palaces including Rang Mahal, Musamman Burj, Diwan-i-Aarn(Hall of public audience), Diwani-Khas (Hall of private audience) Sawan and Bhadon. The Diwan-i-Khas which housed the famous Peacock Throne is decorated most profusely with all sorts of ornamentations and a marble water channel called Nahar-i-Bihishli runs through the centre of the Hall and gives it an appearance of paradise--with the words inscribed on it, walls "If there be a paradise on earth, it is this, it is this!"

Jahangir is known for building some of the finest gardens in the East including the Shalimar Bagh of Kashmir which contained cyp'esses, marble channels of water, fountains and cascades.

Fatehpur Sikri, the deserted capital of the Mughal emperor Akbar contained some fine architectural monuments. Its Hall of Private audience has an exquisite carved pillar in the centre of the Hall. The Badshahi Mosque built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore is one of the biggest and finest mosques in the world.

Spain
Of all the splendid architectural monuments built by Muslims in different parts of the world, Spain possesses some of the grandest. If India can boast of her Taj, Persia of the great Mosque of Isfahan, Baghdad of its majestic palaces, Cairo of its mosque Ibn Tulun, Moorish Spain may claim an outstanding place for her Alhambra and the grand mosque of Cordova which are considered the marvels of architecture.
In Spain too, the mosques, which are found everywhere, offer the best means of studying the architectural development of the country. After the fall ofthe Omayyad (750 A.D.), when Abdur Rahman founded a kingdom of his own in Spain he developed the old Syrian architecture on individual lines. The earliest example of this style are represented by the Sidi Oqba mosque at Qairuan and the Az-Zituna Mosque at Tunis. The hall for a mosque was introduced in this period and in the East there used to be a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade `which contained a water basin for ablutions. A lofty quadrangular tower served as minaret, while opposite the Mahrab was situated the Maqsura (the chieftain's lodge) crowned with a dome. The great Mosque of Cordova had been built on the above plan. Horse-shoe arches of alternate red brick and white key stones rested on slender pillars and above them rose a second storey of round arches of the same type as supported the original cedarwood-ceiling. It is a large congregational mosque with a deep sane tuary containing eleven galleries separated by arcades, each with twenty columns. The Maqsura contained richly decorated lobar arches and horse-shoe arches where the dome sprang from two intersecting quadrangles of arches. The Mahrab was decorated with Byzantine glass mosaic. In other parts of the building plastered floral forms predominate in the decorations. The Minbar is richly carved and the Mahrab is covered with glazed tiles. "This plan, with its slender stone pillars" says a celebrated European writer, "horse-shoe and lobar arches, tiling and stucco (glazed) arabesques, in later centuries was carried on into graceful style, a kind of Magrebine rococo and remains the distinctive characteristic of all Moorish and Mudejar art in Spain till the 16th century".

The glory of Cordova is Mezquita or Mosque which was converted into a cathedral by the Christian conquerors. It was begun by Abdur Rahman II (756-788 A.D.) continued by Al-Hakim II and completed by the Vazier of Hisham II (976-1009 A.D.). The mosque is rectangular measuring 590 feet by 425 feet, 113 sq. feet of which is occupied by the famous 'court - of oranges' and cloisters surrounded it on three sides. On the south of the courtyard, lies a labyrinth of pillars made of many coloured marble. The 850 pillars divide the building into 19 North to South and 29 East to West aisles (galleries). Each row supports a row of open Moorish arches of the same height (12 feet) with a third and similar row superimposed upon the second. The wooden ceiling richly carved and polished is still intact. The mahrab of the mosque where the Imam stood presents the best type of workmanship, in which a small octangonal recess (corner) is roofed with a single block of white marble carved in the form of a shell. ' Its walls are decorated with Byzantine mosaics. "But the most original contribution of Cordova to architecture" says J. B. Trend, "was the system of vaulting based on intersecting arches and visible intersecting ribs, a system which attacks the main problem of architecture--that of covering space with a roof in much the same way as the system of Gothic vaulting which developed two centuries later".

The palace of Az-Zahra built by an-Nasir, situated at a distance of four miles from Cordova was one of the best palaces of the world. It is built of many coloured marble--white, rosy, onyx and green. The eastern hall contained fountains jetting out of the mouths of different animals made of gold and set with precious stones. The Diwan-i-kam was a remarkable piece of workmanship made of marble and gold set with jewels. According to the old writers, "it was impossible to give in words a proper description of the boldness of the design, the beauty of the proportions, the elegance of the or naments and decorations, whether of carved marble or of molten gold, of the columns that seemed from their symmetry as if cast in moulds, of the paintings that equalled the choicest bowers themselves, the vast but firmly constructed lake, and the fountains with the exquisite images".

Alhambra
Alhambra, the finest of all Moorish monuments and universally acknowledged as one of the wonders of the world is situated in Granada. It has not been fully established by historical records as to who was its original builder, but it has been proved by latest research that the fortress of Alhambra existed long before the advent of Al-Ahmar, the rulers of Granada. The first mention of this fortress found in historical records is during'the reign-of Amir Abdulla, the sixth Omayyad monarch of Spain, when in 890 A. D., Sa'wwar, the Muslim general, was obliged to take refuge in this fortress due to the rebellion of the neighbouring tribesmen. Again in 1161A.D, when Ibn Abdul Momin had shut himself within the four walls of the impregnable fortress of Alhambra, Moratabin laid siege to it which lasted for a pretty long time. The monarchs of the Al-Ahmar dynasty, who established themselves as the rulers of Granada in 1232 A. D., are distinguished for having a fine taste in architecture and are responsible for building one of the finest palaces in the world, known as Alhambra. The fortress and its four walls, as already explained existed long before the construction of the inner palaces. Abu Abdulla Muhammad Salis (1302--9 A.D), Abul Hajjaj Yusuf 1(1330-54 A.D.) and Muhammad Khamis Al-Ghani Billah (1354--·59 A.D,), the rulers of Granada were mainly responsible for the construction, enlargement and the architectural decorations of the palaces of Alhambra. These palaces which have witnessed the pomp and pageantry, trials and tribulations of the successive Al-Ahmar monarchs ultimately fell into the hands of Christians in 1492 A. D. The splendid decorations of the interior is ascribed to Yusuf I who died in 1354 A.D,

This unique piece of architectural art was disfigured and in places demolished by the Christian conquerors and rulers.. Charles V changed the lesser mosque adjoining the Court of Myrtles into a chapel and disfigured the old royal abode by demolishing the southern wing, which probably contained the main porch. He was not contented with this and did even worse when he replaced it with a building of renaissance style, with a showy facade which was an ugly contrast to the simple outer walls of the old palace. The great mosque of Muhammad III was razed to the ground and was replaced by the church of Santa Maria in 1581 A.D. According to a western historian, "In subsequent centuries the carelessness of the Spanish authorities (Christian Monarchs) permitted this master piece of Moorish art to be still defaced". It was damaged by French invaders in 1812 A.D. and further by earthquake in 1821 A.D.

Site
Alhambra is situated on a hilly terrace in the midst of rare natural surroundings. The plateau, river and the beautiful gardens and forests have all added to its natural charm. · This fortress is surrounded on three sides bythe river Douro, and has an entrance on the south-eastern side. Its outer walls are constructed of superfine red bricks, henceit is called Alhambra, meaning 'red' in Arabic. Like many Christian castles, it has a three-fold arrange ment--a castle, a palace and a residential annexe for subordinates. The Alcazaba or castle is the oldest part, built on the dangerous foreland; and only its massive outer walls., towers and ramparts are still intact. A short distance from Alcazaba is the Al hambra proper, the palace of the Moorish Rings and adjacent to it is Alhambra Alta originally built as the residence of the officials.

Palace
Alhambra is a villa surrounded by extensive gardens and parks. One enters the Alhambra park through the gate of pomegranates which is a grand arch built in the 15th century A.D. A steep ascent leads to the main entrance of the palace, which is known as the "gate of judgment" and is a massive horseshoe archway, surrounded by a square tower, which served as an informal "Court of Justice". A small door leads to the "Arab Palace", from which a corridor leads to the "Court of Blessing" or "Court of Pond". This is 140 feet by 74 feet and in its centre is located a large pond set in marble pavement, full of gold fish and. with myrtles growing along its sides. It has galleries on the north and the south. The 27 feet high principal entrance supported by marble pillars is on the south. The "Hall of Ambassadors" is the largest hall in the palace of Alhambra. It is a square room whose sides are 37 feet in length and its central dome is 75 feet high. This was the grand reception room and the throne of the Sultan was placed opposite the entrance.

The celebrated "Court of Lions" is an oblong court measuring116 feet by 66 feet supported by a low gallery resting on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the Court at each corner with ornamented walls and a light domed-roof elaborately decorated. The lattice work of the walls is extremely fine. The floor is covered with many coloured tiles and slender pillars made of white marbles. The walls up to a height of 5 feet are inlaid with blue and yellow tiles whose borders are polished with blue and gold. The famous fountains of lions are in the centre of the courtyard where a magnificent alabaster basin is supported by 12 lions made of white marble.

The "Hall of Abencerrages" is a room which is a perfect square crowned with a high dome containing latticed windows in its lowest part. The roof is painted with bright blue, brown and gold and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in an exquisite manner. Opposite to it is the hall of "Two Sisters", which contains a fountain in the centre. A dome honey-combed with about 5,000 tiny cells, a magnificent example of the "Stalactite Vaulting of the Moors", forms the roof of the Hall.

The famous vase of Alhambra which is a remarkable specimen of Moorish art represents the invaluable original furniture of the Palace, which was made in 1320 A.D.

Alhambra is undoubtedly a marvel of the architectural ingenuity of man. Writing in his celebrated work A Short History of the Saracens, Ameer Ali, the famous Muslim writer, says, "The towers, citadels and palaces, with their light and elegant architecture, the graceful porticos and colonndes, the domes and ceilings still glowing with tints which have lost none of their original brilliancy; the airy halls, constructed to admit the perfume of the surrounding gardens; the numberless fountains over which the owners had such perfect control, that the water could be made high or low, visible or invisible at pleasure, sometimes allowed to spout in the air, and at other times to spread out in large oblong sheets, in which were reflected buildings, fountains and serene azure sky; the lovely arabesques, paintings and mosaics finished with such care and accuracy as to make even the smallest apartment fascinating, and illuminated in various shades of gold, pink, light blue and dusky purple'; the lovely dados of porcelain, mosaic of various figures and colours; the beautiful Hall of Lions with its cloister of 128 slender and graceful columns, its blue and white pavement, its harmony of scarlet, azure and gold; the arabesques glowing with colour like the pattern on a cashmere shawl, its lovely marble filigree filling in the arches, its beautiful cupolas, its famous alabaster cup in the centre; the enchanting Hall of Music ... the beautiful seraglio with its delicate and graceful brass lattice work and exquisite Ceilings; the lovely colouring of the stalactites in the large halls and of the conical linings in the smaller chambers--all these require a master's pen to describe".

The inscriptions found in the palace relate to its decorations and not to its erection. The major part of construction and decoration were done by Yusuf I. The decorations around the Court of Lions and further eastward were made in the reign of Muhammad V.

Comparison
The palaces of Alhambra built in the 13th century A.D., mark the transition from the Saljuq art in Asia Minor to the style of the Persian monuments, The grandeur ofAlhambra may only be realised, when it is compared with contemporary buildings--e.g,, with the great Mosque of Sultan Hassan built in 1356--59 A.D, which serves as a striking contrast to Alhambra. "Alhambra is unique", says a European writer, "No other example of the Islamic palace of so early a date and in such relatively good condition has yet been found" The two adjoining courts in the "Hali of Ambassadors" resemble the ancient houses of Pompeii. "The well-known Courts in the style of the Cosmatic in Rome", says Says a well-known westerner, "with their exotic and fairy like ornament can only be accounted for as imitations of these Moorish palace Courts" The plan of dividing the Palace into a system of courts and pavilions in the midst of gardens as is visible in the Safavid Palaces of Isfahan and the old Sarai of Istanbul was probably imported by Moors.

Iran
Architecture in Iran is distinguished for for its refinement and delicacy. Contrary to the huge and massive monuments built by the Mughals and Turks, Persian architecture has a gracefulness all its own.

Persian Muslims who formed the vanguard of all cultural and artistic movements in the Islamic world introduced many innovations and beautiful designs in architecture. Unfortunately Persia had never been the seat of any of the Islamic Caliphates or great empires, hence one does not come across big palaces, mosques and.other grand buildings as are found in Baghdad, Damascus, Istanbul, Cairo, Cordova and Delhi. But, in spite of this handicap Persia did not lag behind in producing some of the greatest intellectual and artistic luminaries of the Islamic world and whatever architectural monuments are found in Persia have their own peculiar charm and style.

In Islamic countries such buildings as monastries, mosques, tombs and palaces are found in large number. The Persians brought about a great change in the style and architectural design of mosques. Due to ever increasing number of mosques, congregations had very much decreased and Persians were obliged to design a new type of mosque in order to meet the requirements of the time. This is called the Persian type of Mosque which had a Madrassa attached to it. In this typical Persian design, the mosque courtyard used for ablution as well as for prayers is surrounded by two storeyed verandahs behind which are situated small rooms for teachers and students. From the middle of each side run open halls, open to the front and roofed with a vault of ogee arches. Each hall called Iwan, containing Mahrab and Minbarserves as lecture room.- Such iwans, twice ashigh as the adjacent part of the Building are splendidly ornamented and flanked by small minarets. A smaller iwan of the same type serves as the gateway. The main iwan is crowned with a dome narrowed at the bottom and it contains the founder's Tomb or Mahrab..

Writing about these mosques a well-known European writer says, "With their slender minarets their magnificent iwaras and gateways and their lofty domes (often gilded)--these buildings are among the most astonishing buildings Of the East". The walls of these mosques are always overlaid with mosaic of dull or glazed bricks and smooth tiles of various colours which are artistically decorated with lines of carved Arabic script and flower arabesques. The slender pillars Immensely add to the charm of the buildings. Un, fortunately these buildings are in a state of decay. The most celebrated of this type are "The Blue Mosque of Tabriz" and the "Masjjd Shah" at Tabriz which were constructed in the 15th century A,D. Other mosques of similar or slightly older type are the great mosque of Veramin (1322 A.D.) that of Isfahan (11--14 century) the mosque containing the Tomb of Imam Raza at Mashhad (1418 A.D.) and the Masjid Shah at Isfahan (1600 A.

In the Juma Mosque of Isfahan, a quadrangle surrounded with four iwans of Persian madrassa was added to the old Piered Mosque. This mosque was originally built in pillared mosque and frequently, enlarged and as usual was surrounded with bazaars.

The ancient Friday Mosques have not survived in Persia except a few old parts standing in a great complex of buildings that formed the great mosques of Isfahan and Shiraz. Abu Muslim in the reign of Caliph Mamun built two big mosques in Merv and Neshapur of which the latter was built on pillars of wood and designed in typical PerSian style. An old mosque of the 1Oth century A.D. has survived in Naizin, an old desert city of Isfahan. The iwan and mahrab court were added to the mosques of Persia in the 11th century. The Friday Mosque of Isfahan built in the 12th century A.D., is one of the finest and largest congregational mosques of the East. This is built of bricks and decorated with plastered Reliefs and Polished Tiles. Its minarets being cylindrical in shape and placed in pairs are covered with glazed tiles and are not very high. It was in Persia that the art of ornamentation and arabesque in architecture was most developed and Persians made the greatest use of glazed coloured tiles in their buildings. From the 13th century onward Persia and India made the greatest advancement in architecture and Persia developed its own style. The art of arabesque which became very popular in Islamic architecture was widely adopted by the Western world.

The favourite form of princely Tomb in Persia from the 1Oth to the 14th centuries A.D. was that a Tower was constructed over the grave surrounded with circular ground plan. A conical roof rested on the projected ornamented walls beneath which was the grave on which was inscribed in beautiful carved letters the name, titles and date of death of the deceased. The finest tomb of the kind is that of Momina Khatoon at Nakhichavan.

Among the old type of Persian Palaces are Qasr-e-Amra with vaulted baths adorned with frescoes and the HIRA found at Mshatta. These are rectangular Castles and in order to reach the hall of audience one has to pass through a number of ante-rooms. Attached to the hall are the princes apartments and Harem.
At the back is a private garden and soldiers quarters are on both sides.

Caravansarais in Persia which were fortified hostelries for travellers were built on the plan of a Iwan mosque--the rooms were used as stalls and guest rooms. There were carved streets in the attached bazaars, . and they had pillars with round arched vaulting in the west and long rows of curved arched vaults in the east. The Old type of sarais found in Istanbul were decorated with tiles copied from Persia.

Almost all the old Persian bridges have disappeared. The two very beautiful bridges joining Isfahan and Zulfa constructed in the 17th century still exist and have two storeyed superstructures and pavilions.

Private houses are of varied type--reception and living rooms are Separated from female apartments and a second courtyard is provided for them. There are different devices for cooling apartments in the East and West. In Mediterranean countries where water is in plenty there are constructed half darkened inner halls containing springs while in dry Persia and Iraq there are underground summer apartments with projecting ventilators.

A dome is the favourite feature of Islamic architecture. In Cairo It was pompous while in Persia it was bulbous and carved with glazed tiles. The cylindrical shaped minarets Of Persia were not much used in other Islamic countries.

In Muslim countries mostly horse-shoe or pointed horse-shoe arches were designed. The semi-circular or two centred arches were not much employed. The typical Persian arch of which the springing curve turns into straight lines was commonly used in Persia for a long time and at times resembles the "Tudor" arch.

Battlements in buildings were fully decorated with floral forms or cut into saw-teeth. The windows of old Persian buildings were carved with lattice work in which coloured glasses were fixed.

In Persia buildings are generally made of bricks and glazed tiles too are frequently used here. These tiles were primarily of geometrical forms but later diverse floral forms were introduced.

One of the most popular branches of Muslim architecture is that of ornamental writing, which is employed with great success in the decoration of mosques, tombs and palaces where lines from the Holy Quran are carved or inlaid round domes and minarets, doors and arches. Persians developed this art to a great extent and widely used ornamental writings in the decoration of tombs and mosques.

In beauty and grace, in design and simplicity, Muslim architecture is superior to any in the world.

The Mughal Architecture in East Pakistan
The great Mughals who splendidly ruled over the Indo-Pak Sub-continent for more than four centuries are known as the greatest builders in history. Their ancestor Babar founded a vast Empire in India which rivalled in prosperity and splendour the great Caliphates of Abbasids and Omayyads in Spain. Delhi their metropolis, along with Baghdad and Constantinople, Cairo and Cordova was considered one of the finest cities of the known world. The Mughals who are well-known for their pomp and pageantry have raised some of the most magnificent architectural monuments in the East. Delhi houses the splendid Jamma Masjid (Grand Mosque), the Majestic Red Fort and the matchless Pearl Mosque, all built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. He is also the distinguished builder of the immortal Taj Mahal of Agra. In Lahore stands the magnificent Badshahi Masjid (King's Mosque) built by the celebrated emperor Aurangzeb. Dacca which had the privilege of being the headquarter of the Mughal viceroy governing the Eastern Provinces possesses some striking Mughal buildings .

The earliest contacts of the Mughals with the Eastern province may be traced back to the close of the 16th century A.D., when Afghans who dominated over these parts yielded to the Mughals and they established their headquarters at Tanda near Gaur, about 15 miles South-west of Malda in West Bengal. It was in 1612 A.D., that the Mughals got complete supremacy over Bengal and Islam Khan, the Mughal governor transferred his Capital to Dacca.. This caused a great change in the life of Bengal and added immensely to the prosperity of the people.

The oldest Mughal monument in Bengal is a ruined mosque erected in 1582. A.D. in Chatmohar, District Pabna. It contains three arched entrances, which still exist, The central arch has traces of having been richly decorated with ornamental designs.

Another monument of the same period is a mud fort constructed in 1595, A.D. by Raja Man Singh, the Bengal Governor of the Mughal Emperor Akbar at Salim Nagar, in Bogra District.

The best massive monument of this period is a mosque known as Kherua Masjid which is situated at a short distance from the Tomb of Saint Bande Saheb. This mosque, which was built in 1582 A.D. by Murad Khan Qasshaly, measures 57x24 1/2, and has 6 feet thick walls. The mosque is rectangular in shape and the central gateway contains an inscription. The arches are decorated with floral designs which greatly contribute to their charm.

Later Mughal Monuments
Dacca which was the headquarter of the Mughal viceroys possesses some of the finest Mughal architectures in East Pakistan. Shaista Khan, the maternal uncle of the great Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and Prince Muhammad Azam, the third son of the celebrated emperor who were successive viceroys in the Eastern Provinces of the Mughal Empire were the two persons credited with enriching East Pakistan with grand Mughal monuments rarely visible in these parts of the Sub-continent. It is futile to compare the Mughal architectural monuments of Dacca with those of Delhi Agra and Lahore which for long periods, had the privilege of being the metropolis of the great Mughal Empire. Being a Provincial Capital, Dacca may favourably be compared with any other Provincial Capital and to that extent it possesses more than its share of Mughal monuments. Bogra and Mymensing, too, possess a few buildings built by the Mughals.

Old Idgah
The remains of the old Idgah, built by Mir Abul Qasim, the Dewan of Prince Shuja in 1640 A.D., still stands about 1 1/2 miles outside Dacca municipal limits. The building is of plastered brickwork, standing on a raised platform 245 x 135' in size.

The remains of Bara Katra built of plastered brick; work in 1644 by Mir Abul Qasim on the north bank of the river, are still visible and remind people of the commercial prosperity of Mughal times. It had 22 big shops and was also used as a caravansarai. Its three storeyed lofty gateway and the river side walls which are 200 feet long, have faced the ravages of time. The chamber of the main gate as well as the interior of the arches are ornamented with plaster net work and floral designs which are preserved in a dilapidated state.

Lall Bagh Fort
On the Eastern corner of old Daccastand the remains of the incomplete Lall Bagh Fort or Fort Aurangabad, whose construction was commenced by Prince Muhammad Azam, the third son of Emperor Aurangzeb, but could not be completed as the Prince was summoned by his illustrious father in 1679 A.D. to join his forces against the Marahttas. The finished part of the fort contains two main gates on the north and south in a 2,000 feet long massive walls. The fort was built of red bricks. The river Purl Ganga, which, in those days, washed the south western corner of this majestic fort, has slightly changed its course, leaving a track of land which has been converted into meadows. The bastion adjacent to the main gateway is of gigantic size and has a raised platform 13 feet wide for the stationing of guns. The stately three storeyed gate on the south, with a four centred arch-way built of stone and crowned with a plastered dome, is the most attractive part of the building. Adequate protective measures were taken in the construction of the building against river Piracy.

Pari Bibi's Tomb
The Tomb of Pari Bibi, standing amid the unfinished Lall Bagh fort is like a lotus flower in a big pond. It is the mausoleum of Bibi Pari (Lady Fairy), the favourite daughter of Shaista Khan. The Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan whose sister Mumtaz Mahal has been buried in the immortal Taj Mahal, the finest mausoleum ever built on the surface of the earth, raised another matchless Tomb for his beloved daughter Pari Bibi. Built of black, grey and white marble stones brought from,Bihar, U.P. and Rajputana, this mausoleum is the finest specimen of Mughal architecture in the Eastern Provinces. The walls and the floor of the burial chamber are made of white marble lined with black. The walls of the four cornered rooms previously had multi-coloured glazed tiles and were decorated with floral designs, which now are missing. The 'series of corbelled roof', with its excellent timber work is the most striking portion of the building. The grave which is made of white marble in three steps, presents a simple but sober specimen of the arabesque, The doors were originally of carved sandal wood.

Domed Mosque
Prince Muhammad Azam built in 1678 A.D, a small three domed mosque which is located about 50· yards west of the tomb of Pari Bibi. The walls of the mosque are coated with coloured plasters. Another small mosque and an adjacent tomb built in 1679 A.D, by Haji Khwaja Shahbaz, a business magnate ofDacca are situated at a distance of about half a mile from old Dacca. The walls, which are made of bricks are panelled. The tomb is square in shape, having four central gates, one on each side. This tomb 'represents the average Bengali style of the time of Aurangzeb'.

Red Mosque
A red brick mosque built by Khan Muhammad Mirdha in 1706 A.D., stands North-west of the Lall Bagh fort. Another mosque, which is said to have been built by Shaista Khan in 1689 A.D. stands majestically on a low rock near Jafarabad, about two miles outside Dacca. A lot of ornamentation and floral designs, though in decayed form, are still visible inside the mosque.

Brick Fort
Idrakpur, a place at a distance of about 15 miles from Dacca still contains the dilapidated remains of a small brick fort built in 1660 A.D. by Mir Jumla, the invincible General of Emperor Aurangzeb, who was posted as the Governor of Bengal. It was constructed to provide a check to Portuguese pirates, who had become a nuisance in that part of the Mughal Empire. The fort is 270 feet x 240 feet, containing a long high platform used probably for mounting the big guns. Two other small forts were also built side by side for similar purposes and throw light on the coastal defence measures taken during the 17th century A.D.

Brick Bridge
Mir Jumla is also known to have built a plastered brick bridge over a tributary of the Bari Ganga in 1659--63 A.D. about 5 miles south-east of Dacca. On each side of both ends of the bridge are small projected pavilions. Considering the limitations of engineering during the 17th century, this bridge may be cited as an excellent example of workmanship in these parts of the sub-continent. Besides those in Dacca, there are a number of Mughal architectural monuments scattered on other districts of East Pakistan which include the Tomb of Banda Sahib and Polar Masjid in district Bogra; the mosques of Shah Muhammad and Aurangzeb in district Mymensing; and the mosque built by Govind Manikya at Shuja Ganj in district Comilla. All of these bear the characteristics of later Mughal architectural style.

FINE AND MINOR ARTS

Arab Calligraphy
The Arabic script stands second only to Roman script in the world. It is a script which prevails throughout the Islamic world extending from Morocco in the west to Indonesia in the East.

With the advancement of Arabic culture, greater refinements of taste in almost all walks of life including calligraphy was noticed in Arabia and other Muslim countries where Arabic script was adopted as the national script. The Arabic calligraphy both in beauty and variety was also influenced by local conditions and a few celebrated calligraphers wrote as many as fifty different Arabic scripts. The earliest monuments of Arabic writings are the trilingual (Greek, Syraic and Arabic) inscriptions of Zebed dated 512 A.D. and the bilingual (Greek and Arabic) inscription of the Harran in the Ledja dating 568 A.D.

During the early period of Islam, the principal material written on was leather. 'Besides this palm leaves, camel bones, flat white stones, wooden tables arrd parchments were also used for writing purposes.

The origin of Arabic script has not been established some think it to be a developed form of stiff angular script called kuJi by the Arabs. Balazuri and many others hold it to have been invented in the state of Lakhmids. Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Khalikan corroborate this view and maintain that 'Art of writing spread from Hira or Anbar'. The Arabic script replaced the prevailing script of the countries conquered by the Arabs-Arabic replaced Syraic in Iraq, Syria and Palestine; Pahlevi script in Persia; Coptic and Greek scripts in Egypt and primitive Berber script in North Africa.

The period of the Abbasid Caliphate is the golden era of Islamic culture, distinguished for the great advancement of Arabic sciences and arts. The Arab calligraphy, too, received great impetus during the Abbasids reign, Hitherto Arab calligraphists concentrated ln the writing of the Quran and on monuments of stone, but now greater refinement and variety was visible in the work of Arab calligrapbists.

Greater attention was now paid to the artistic development of Arab calligraphy. During and before the Abbasid rule a script called Khutut existed which was Used for the writing of the Quran and for profane literature. During the Abbasid Caliphate a number of outstanding calligraphists existed. One of them was Gli Bin Ubaida al-lpihani who invented Rihani script. He was also a prolific writer who lived under Mamrim and died,in 834 A.D. The others were Wazir Ibn Mukla (885--940 A.D.) and his brother Abu Abd

Allah Al-Hassan (881--942 or 950 A.D.). No reliable specimen of their art is available escept an alleged autograph of Mukla preserved in the Khedivial Library, These last two calligraphists are taken to be the reformers of written script. Ibn Khaldun holds that kufic characters were changed by Mukla into the present type of script.
Ibn al-Bawwab who died in 1022 or 1032 A.D. was a celebrated Arab calligrapher called 'Ibn al-Sitri-’ He wrote 64 copies of the Quran. One of them was written in Rihani script which is preserved in the Laleli Mosque of Istanbul to which it was given by Sultan Salim I. The Diwan of the pre-Islamic poet Salma bin Jandal copied by him in a beautiful hand was placed in the library of Aba Sufya. He improved Rihani script and invented Muhaqqi script. He started a school of Calligraphy at Baghdad which lasted upto the time of Yaqut al-Mustasimi.

Yakut aI-Mustasimi, the court calligrapher of Al-Mustasim Billah, the last Caliph among the Abbasids acquired great fame. A script called Yakuri derived its name from him. The two Qurans written by him in 1290 and 1291 are still extant and exhibit the stiff Naskhi of the later Persian period. Yaqut's signature is written in a kind of Suls. According to a western critic, "He owes his fame more to fashion than to anything else".

On the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the centre of Arab culture shifted fo Egypt, the largest Muslim country where the Fatimids had formed their Caliphate, During the first half of the 6th Century Hijrah, the round Script was greatly developed and used in books by Arab calligraphers in Egypt. Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt it was mostly used on stone monuments, e.g, Saladin's incriptions on the arch and minbar of the Mosque Aqsa in Jerusalem. During Mamluk rule of Egypt very beautiful designs of round Arabic script were developed by calligraphers and specimens are found in Qurans written for the Sultan and Amirs of Egypt of that period.

During the rule of the Abbasid, Fatimid and other Egyptian dynasties much attention was paid both by government departments and by private individuals to calligraphy. Kalkashandi in the second volume of his great work enumerates 6 different types of official scripts:--
(1) Al-Tumar aI-Kamil (in several variations, used for official correspondence of monarchs).
(2) Mukhfasar al-Tumar (in two variations - al-Muhakkak and al-Thulth).)
(3)AI-Thulih (in two forms--al Thaqil and AI-KhafiS)
(4) Al-Tawki (in three forms).
(5) Al-Rika (in three forms).
(6) AI-Ghubnr (in one form).

During the Mamluk period, stone monuments exhibited graceful script--the letters of which were more elegant and slender than any produced up to that period.

After the fall of the Mamluks, the Ottoman Turks too patronised Arabic calligraphy and much attention was paid to it both officially and privately. As late as the XI century A. W. more than 30 different scripts were known. The celebrated Turkish caHigraphers who left behind immortal specimens of Arabic calligraphy were Hamd Allah (died 1530 A.D.) and Hafiz Othman (Usman) who died in 1698--99 A.D.

Arabic calligraphy declined in Arab countries after the 14th century A.D., but it became more refined and artistic in Muslim countries, especially Persia where Arabic script was adopted and verses of the Quran were frequently written in different forms. The Persians developed Arabic calligraphy to a high degree of perfection. The famous calligraphist Muhammad Rawandi called Najmuddin Abu Bakr Muhammad born at Rawand near Kashan could Write seventy different scripts. Another famous calligrapher Muhammad Husain Tabrizi who received the title of Mihin (greatest) Ustad, has left behind numerous examples of the art of calligraphy. His masterpiece was the inscriptions on the Mosque and Khanqah (sanctuary) of Tabriz which was destroyed in an earthquake.

Arabic calligraphy was developed in different centres where Arabs had settled namely North Africa, Spain, Morocco and Timbuktoo (Nigeria). The Arabic script was modified according to local conditions and was named after local places. In North Africa it was called Maghrabi (western) in Spain It was called Andalusian in Morocco it was called Fasi.

Rare specimen of Arabic calligraphy are still to be seen in the big cities of Islamic world. Greater and greater grace is being added to it.

MINOR ACTS
During the regimes of the pious Caliphs who led simple lives like ordinary mortals and had no palaces, or decorations, the arts could make little headway. But soon thereafter, during the Omayyad Caliphate when Caliphs preferred a life of pomp and pageantry the minor arts received unprecedented encouragement and Muslim artisans became pioneers in the sphere of Minor arts too, The Abbasids who were greatly influenced by Persian culture, built grand palaces and distinguished themselves as great patrons of arts and learning. The other countries where Muslim minor arts flourished were Muslim Spain, Persia and Mughal India; 'Islam was the direct heir to many ancient craft traditions unknown to the west", writes A. H. Christiein thelegacy oflslam. "ln much the same way that Muslim scholars transmitted to posterity a large fund of ancient learning, Muslim artisans preserved, developed and spread abroad the traditional workshop practice of arts in the orient, which had either never penetrated Europe, or, if known there in former times, had decayed during the period of storm and stress that ushered in the middle ages"' Islamic art had its beginnings in the mosque. The early mosques were simple constructions without any decorations. But soon mosques were refined and mahrab and minbar were added to them. Decorations in architectral design and furniture were provided in the mosques. The contact of Arab conquerors with the more cultured conquered nations of Persia and Rome enlarged their vision regarding art and architecture which stimulated the development of art in Muslim countries.

The Muslims soon became great builders and produced skilful artisans. 'Their genius realised definite, architectural ideas with acute technical insight'. Their ideological objections to the presentation of human form, prevented the growth of painting and sculptures among them. But, on the other hand they showed great artistic taste and ingenuity in the ornamentation and design of natural objects which surpassed all presentations of their predecessors. The Muslim artists, artisans and craftsmen soon acquired such a reputation that their products were keenly sought in the Royal houses of distant Europe. "The most casual survey of Islamic art will show that ornamental designs must be ranked as the outstanding minor art evolved by Muslim genius", writes a western writer. In place of artistic decoration through presentation of human images in colour or mortar, Muslims evolved another feature of ornamentation by the use of Arabic inscriptions, passages from the Holy Quran and the name as well as date of death were artistically inscribed on the graves of important people. The Arab dalligraphists showed great ingenuity in the artistic renderings of Arabic fetters on stones, paper and wood which immensely popularised this art in Islamic countries. Later, during the closing period of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Mughal Empire of India, passages from the Holy Quran and verses of Persian poets were artistically inscribed on the walls of tombs and mosques. The front arch of the famous Taj Mahal of Agra presents an unique specimen of an artistic inscription from the Holy Quran.

Pottery made of clay and glass were developed to a high standard of perfection in Muslim countries. The chief beauty.of high class pottery manufactured in Islamic countries lay in the floral designs, neat finish, riot of colours and glazed surface. China had been the workshop of high class pottery long before the advent of Islam, but after the 9th century A.D., Muslim potters rivalled and even excelled their Chinese counterparts. According to western writers, 'blue and white' colours were used for pottery in China, but the typical blue was an innovation of Muslim potters and even in China it was known as 'Muhammadan Blue'. This colour was superbly used on certain wares made at Kutahia (Asia Minor) during the 15th and 16th centuries A.D. As regards artisanship, Muslim pottery occupies an outstanding place. The Muslim potters exhibited great originality by inventing new designs. The excavations carried on by archaeologists in Muslim countries have revealed high class glazed pottery in the ruins of Fustat (old Cairo), Samarra (old Baghdad) and Rayy, In the field of lustre or glazed pottery Muslims achieved great success. Pieces of such wares of different varieties used during the IOth century A.D. have been found in North Africa and Spain. Fustat (old Cairo) was a great centre of pottery making from the 9th century to the 11th century A.D. and the famous Persian traveller Nassir Khusrau has described in detail the wares used there during the 9th century A.D.

During the regime of the Abbasids, art and architecture registered phenomenal progress. The excavations at Samarra have brought out exceptionally high class wares used by the Abbasids.

This pottery bears even the date of manufacture and hence is of much historical value. Sa'ad was the most skilled potter who signed his wares. Egypt did not lag behind and lustre painting was an innovation of Egyptian potters,The material used in Egypt was different from the pink and yellowish Baghdad clay.

The Spanish Muslims, too, developed this handicraft to a high degree and created a new tradition known as Hispano-Moresque. Valencia was the centre of painted pottery and specialised in the manufacture of drug jars. The Italians later successfully emulated Spanish lustre pottery. Toledo and Cordova and Malaga made exquisite pottery. The Iranian wares like those of Egypt, were made of a hard white paste with transparent alkaline glaze. But these were of finer quality. Iran which has been the cradle of Islamic culture introduced ornamentation in pottery. Sultanabad in Persia was the manufacturing centre of a special type of dark blue and black wares during the 13th and 14th centuries. Rayy was a great centre of the ceramic industry and made typical miniature wares. The craftsmen in Rayy introduced several novelties. Abul Qasim, a member of a distinguished family of Iranian potters had written a treatise in 1301 A.D. on the technique of pottery making adopted by the Saljuq Turk potters. The manuscript of this treatise is available in the Museum of Istanbul. The Saljuq wares are known for their glaze, wealth of bright colour and hardness. The floral designs were commonly used in the pottery made in Damascus and Persia. But the Persian wares of this type were exceptionally graceful. The chief characteristic of pottery made in Asia Minor was its red colour, which was conspicuous by its absence in Syria.

The ·gold and silver works of the period of early Islam are non-extant. The earliest extant silver work of Islam is a casket in the cathedral of Gerona which is made of wood sheathed with silver-gilt plating heavily patterned in response with scrolling foliation'. This casket was made by two craftsmen Badr and Tarif for a courtier of Al-Hakam II (961--76 A.D.) the Omayyad ruler of Spain. The Muslim goldsmiths and craftsmen had excelled in metal work. They introduced several novelties in engraving, caring and floral designs. "Other ways of decorating metals besides raising patterns in relief or engraving them were practised by the Muslim craftsmen. They excelled in the art of inlaying designs in gold and silver, in bronze and brass; a process performed in several ways, known as 'damascening'.... In the 15th century the oriental trade established by Italian cities during the Crusades flourished exceedingly. Eastern products became popular in the splendid pageantry of the petty Italian princes, whose workmen adopted them as models and began to emulate their triumphs. In Venice Muslim metal work inspired native craftsmen so profoundly that a distinct Venetian-oriental school arose in which Muslim technique and designs were adapted to the renaissance taste". The Royal palaces in Muslim states bore metal wares of exceptional beauty and designs. The famous Muslim historian al-Maqrizi gives a long list of heirlooms hoarded in the palaces of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt which include vases for narcissus flowers and violets, golden birds and trees set with precious stones. The Persian traveller Nassir Khusrau who had a chance to see the Fatimid Palace in 1047 describes a throne kept in the 12th room which bore excellent metal work and was decorated with scenes of a chase. This had a wonderful golden trellis. Among the Abbasid Palaces of Baghdad was one named Dar-us-Shajar. It contained a tree in the middle of a tank made entirely of gold, with birds perched on its branches made also of gold and studded with precious stones. The Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan was of exquisite artistic beauty. It was made of gold set with precious stones. The bronze, brass and copper works of the early Islamic period are extant. One of these is a huge bronze Criffin which stands in Pisa (Italy) which was probably brought from the Fatimid Palace of the 11th century A.D. The inlaid metal work in Muslim countries reached its peak during the 12th century A.D. and Muslim craftsmen were considered by all to be the masters of this art; A specimen of this period is a brass ewer kept in the British Museum. A large number of metal wares and articles with inlaid work made for decorative purposes were introduced by Muslim craftsmen during the 13th and 14th centuries A.D. New designs were invented day after day which could satisfy the refined tastes of cultured and wealthy Muslims. . The Persian craftsmen during these centuries introduced greater refinements in their metal wares compared to Mughal and Egyptian ones. But the devastation, wrought by Mongol hordes in Baghdad, Syria, Persia and Turkistan struck a death blow to the pursuits of arts and scattered their art treasures as well as their artisans.

In wood and ivory works too, Muslim artisans excelled during mediaeval times and introduced several novel features. Floral designs and engraving of letters in wood and ivory works were common features. Several decorative devices in wood wares were used which included assembling of small panels, floral designs, engraving of letters and making figures of birds and animals. Mudejar craftsmen excelled in woodwork, textiles and pottery.

Ivory work, too, was highly developed in Muslim countries. Cordova, the capital of Muslim Spain was a great centre of ivory work and in the 1Oth century A.D. it housed a school of ivory carving, which produced beautiful things of ivory including caskets, toilet, perfume and jewellery boxes, with paintings, representing musical performances and hunting scenes. One of the finest examples of this work is a cylindrical casket kept in the Museo Arguelogico at Madrid which was made in 964 A.D. and was presented as a gift by the Caliph Al-Hakam II to his wife. Another superb example of Muslim ivory work is a remarkable rock crystal ewer in the treasury of Saint Marks, Venice, which bears the name of the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Aziz. "The Arabs in Spain", writes Philip K. Hitti, "carried on almost all the minor and practical arts developed by Muslims in other lands. In metal work involving decoration, raising patterns in relief or engraving them, inlaying with gold and silver and inscribing characters, the Hispano-Moresque School excelled....In the 15th century we find imitations of this Muslim pottery produced as far North as Holland. From Spain the industry was meanwhile introduced into Italy. Its influence is noticeable in the later Spanish vessels, with their pseudo-Arabic inscriptions ·and Christian heraldic devices. In other forms of ceramics, as well as mosaics, especially tile and blue faince, the Spanish Mulim school distinguished itself. The various kinds of coloured tiles still favourites in Spain and Portugal are a legacy from the Arabs, as the name azulejo, suggests”.

Decorative tiles were used in the walls and floor of buildings in Asia Minor and Syria. During the 16th century A.D. some of the large buildings in Constantinople and Brussa (Ottomail Turkey) had their wells gleaming with beautiful tiles with black outlines and coloured in green, blue and red. The Syrian tiles, on the other hand had floral designs and were distinguished from Turkish tiles. The Kashani tiles which were introduced into Syria from Persia were much preferred for the interior decoration of buildings.
The glass industry thrived in Syria where material for glass manufacture was found in abundance. All sorts of glass wares were manufactured in the Syrian towns of Antioch, Alleppo and Damascus. The process of enamelling and gilding glass was perfected by the craftsmen ofTyres. The Spanish manufactured glass was inferior to that of Syria. The Syrian glass was highly priced in Mediaeval Europe. The Syrian glass wares included lamps, lamp shades and vessels of exceptionally beautiful designs. The museums of Louvre, London and Cairo contain exquisite pieces of pottery, glass and metal wares excavated from the ruins of Fustat and Samarra.

.The Egyptian and Spanish binders excelled in leather binding which was later introduced and copied in Europe. The Persians had specialised in the industry of carpet weaving since the days of early Islam. Even during the present day Persian carpets are considered to be the finest in the world. Hunting and garden scenes were favoured in rug designs. Thus minor arts were developed to a high degree of perfection in Muslim countries during mediaeval times. The wares manufactured in Muslim countries were in great demand all over the civilized world. Writing in Legacy of lslam, A. H. Christie admits, "For more than a thousand years Europe has looked upon Islamic art as a thing of wonder; at first largely because it was closely associated with lands deemed the Christian heritage, but later solely by reason of its own intrinsic beauty....With the Crusades a new era opened. The half fabulous magnificence traditionally ascribed to the Saracens became a reality to astonished Christendom. A host drawn from every part of Europe came suddenly into close contact with a social order that in every respect outraged the harrow limits of their experience. In every activity of life the reactions of this impact with alien progress soon became apparent, and in art its results were by no means the least far reaching. As time went on Italian merchants established direct traffic with Syrian ports, oriental trade became regularly organised and all kinds of rare things from Islamic workshops arrived in European markets. These imports met new-found needs, aroused emulation wherever they went,and opened up lines of development either immediately or in subtle ways destined to mature in the future"